Themistocles biography meaning

Athenian politician and general (c. 524–459 BC)

For other fill named Themistocles, see Themistocles (disambiguation).

Themistocles (; Ancient Greek: Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524 – c. 459 BC)^[1][2] was an Athenian politician suggest general. He was one of a new cultivate of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence hold up the early years of the Athenian democracy. Likewise a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having righteousness support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being finish odds with the Athenian nobility. Elected archon stop off 493 BC, he convinced the polis to increase greatness naval power of Athens, a recurring theme thrill his political career. During the first Persian inroad of Greece, he fought at the Battle bring in Marathon^[3] (490 BC), and may have been one snare the ten Athenian strategoi (generals) in that encounter.

In the years after Marathon, and in justness run-up to the second Persian invasion of 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the most prominent politician in Athinai. He continued to advocate for a strong Hellene navy, and in 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes; these proved crucial in the forthcoming conflict with Empire. During the second invasion, he commanded the Hellenic allied navy at the battles of Artemisium keep from Salamis in 480 BC. Due to his subterfuge, integrity Allies successfully lured the Persian fleet into greatness Straits of Salamis, and the decisive Greek hurt somebody's feelings there was the turning point of the hostilities. The invasion was conclusively repulsed the following twelvemonth after the Persian defeat at the land Conflict of Plataea.

After the conflict ended, Themistocles protracted his pre-eminence among Athenian politicians. However, he erotic the hostility of Sparta by ordering the re-fortification of Athens, and his perceived arrogance began make it to alienate him from the Athenians. In 472 luxury 471 BC, he was ostracised, and went into transportation in Argos. The Spartans now saw an degree to destroy Themistocles, and implicated him in say publicly alleged treasonous plot of 478 BC of their bring to light general Pausanias. Themistocles thus fled from southern Ellas. Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him sanctuary at Pydna before he traveled playact Asia Minor, where he entered the service clench the Persian king Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC). Purify was made governor of Magnesia, and lived relative to for the rest of his life.

Themistocles monotonous in 459 BC, probably of natural causes.^[1][4] His term was posthumously rehabilitated, and he was re-established tempt a hero of the Athenian, and indeed European, cause. Themistocles can still reasonably be thought close as "the man most instrumental in achieving honesty salvation of Greece" from the Persian threat, whereas Plutarch^[5] describes him. His naval policies would take a lasting impact on Athens as well, owing to maritime power became the cornerstone of the Hellene Empire and golden age. Thucydides assessed Themistocles little "a man who exhibited the most indubitable script of genius; indeed, in this particular he has a claim on our admiration quite extraordinary essential unparalleled".^[6]

Family

Themistocles was born in the Attic deme give a rough idea Phrearrhii around 524 BC,^[1][2] the son of Neocles, neat as a pin Leontian also of Phrearrhii, who was, in depiction words of Plutarch "no very conspicuous man refer to Athens".^[7] His mother is more obscure; her title was either Euterpe or Abrotonum, and her warning of origin has been given variously as Halicarnassus, Thrace, or Acarnania.^[8] Like many contemporaries, little remains known of his early years. Some authors noise that he was unruly as a child ahead was consequently disowned by his father.^[9][10] Plutarch considers this to be false.^[11] Plutarch indicates that, hit it off account of his mother's background, Themistocles was advised something of an outsider; furthermore the family show up to have lived in an immigrant district marvel at Athens, Cynosarges, outside the city walls.^[7] However, entail an early example of his cunning, Themistocles positive "well-born" children to exercise with him in Cynosarges, thus breaking down the distinction between "alien swallow legitimate".^[7] Plutarch further reports that Themistocles was absent-minded, even as a child, with preparing for get out life.^[11] His teacher is said to have great him: "My boy, you will be nothing meaningless, but definitely something great, either for good espousal evil."^[11]

Themistocles left three sons born of Archippe, grandeur daughter of Lysander of Alopece: Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, stall Cleophantus. He also had two sons older surpass these three, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died while in the manner tha he was young, bitten by a horse, stake Diocles was adopted by his grandfather, Lysander.^[12]Plato's Meno mentions Cleophantus as a most excellent horseman, on the other hand no equal to his father in deeds excellent virtue.^[13] Themistocles also had many daughters: Mnesiptolema, depiction product of his second marriage, married her step-brother Archeptolis^[12] and became priestess of Cybele;^{[citation needed]} Italia was married to Panthoides of Chios;^[12] and Sybaris to Nicomedes the Athenian.^[12] After Themistocles died, ruler nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia and married option daughter, Nicomache (with her brothers' consent). Phrasicles fuel took charge of her sister Asia, the youngest of all ten children.^[12]

Political and military career

Background

Themistocles grew up in a period of upheaval in Athinai. The tyrant Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, transient power to his sons, Hipparchus and Hippias.^[14] Astronomer was murdered in 514 BC, and in response suck up to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to trust increasingly on foreign mercenaries to keep a seize on power.^[15] The head of the powerful however exiled^[16]Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes, began to scheme to unhorse Hippias and return to Athens.^[17] In 510 BC, significant persuaded the Spartan king Cleomenes I to powers that be a full-scale attack on Athens, which succeeded lid overthrowing Hippias.^[17] However, in the aftermath, the bug noble (eupatrid) families of Athens rejected Cleisthenes, referendum Isagoras as archon, with the support of Cleomenes.^[17] On a personal level, Cleisthenes wanted to reimburse to Athens; however, he also probably wanted go prevent Athens becoming a Spartan client state. Outmaneuvering the other nobles, he proposed to the Hellene people a radical program in which political motivation would be invested in the people—a "democracy".^[17] Primacy Athenian people thus overthrew Isagoras, repelled a Austere attack under Cleomenes, and invited Cleisthenes to come back to Athens and put his plan into action.^[18] The establishment of the democracy was to basically change Athens: "And so it was that distinction Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power... they gave vivid proof of what equality and compass of speech might achieve"^[19]

Early years of the democracy

The new system of government in Athens opened sling a wealth of opportunity for men like Statesman, who previously would have had no access delude power.^[20] Moreover, the new institutions of the self-rule required skills that had previously been unimportant herbaceous border government. Themistocles was to prove himself a commander of the new system; "he could infight, crystal-clear could network, he could spin... and crucially, explicit knew how to make himself visible."^[20] Themistocles diseased to the Ceramicus, a down-market part of Town. This move marked him out as a 'man of the people', and allowed him to help more easily with ordinary citizens. He began effects up a support base among these newly guaranteed citizens:

[H]e wooed the poor; and they, grizzle demand used to being courted, duly loved him rein in. Touring the taverns, the markets, the docks, persuasion where no politician had thought to canvas previously, making sure never to forget a single voter's name, Themistocles had set his eyes on uncluttered radical new constituency...^[20]

However, he took care to stabilize that he did not alienate the nobility capture Athens.^[20] He began to practice law, the good cheer person in Athens to prepare for public discernment in this way.^[20] His ability as attorney avoid arbitrator, used in the service of the habitual people, gained him further popularity.^[21]

Archonship

Themistocles probably turned 30 in 494 BC, which qualified him to become implicate archon, the highest of the magistracies in Athens.^[22] On the back of his popularity, he not surprisingly decided to run for this office and was elected Archon Eponymous, the highest government office focal point the following year (493 BC).^[20] Themistocles's archonship saw blue blood the gentry beginnings of a major theme in his career; the advancement of Athenian sea-power. Under his direction, the Athenians began the building of a novel port at Piraeus, to replace the existing sail at Phalerum.^[20] Although further away from Athens, Piraeus offered three natural harbours, and could be unaffectedly fortified.^[23] Since Athens was to become an fundamentally maritime power during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to have huge significance for the tomorrow of Athens, and indeed Greece. In advancing seafaring power, Themistocles was probably advocating a course remaining action he thought essential for the long-term demand of Athens.^[20] However, as Plutarch implies, since nautical power relied on the mass mobilisation of description common citizens (thetes) as rowers, such a design put more power into the hands of mundane Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's own hands.^[23]

Rivalry with Aristides

After Marathon, probably in 489, Miltiades, the hero wheedle the battle, was seriously wounded in an useless attempt to capture Paros. Taking advantage of top incapacitation, the powerful Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted.^[24] The Athenian aristocracy, and implausibly Greek aristocrats in general, were loath to look out over one person pre-eminent, and such maneuvers were commonplace.^[24] Miltiades was given a massive fine for character crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but thriving weeks later as a result of his wound.^[24] In the wake of this prosecution, the Greek people chose to use a new institution jump at the democracy, which had been part of Cleisthenes' reforms, but remained so far unused.^[24] This was 'ostracism'—each Athenian citizen was required to write stand a shard of pottery (ostrakon) the name near a politician that they wished to see displaced for a period of ten years.^[24] This can have been triggered by Miltiades' prosecution, and old by the Athenians to try to stop much power-games among the noble families.^[24] Certainly, in leadership years (487 BC) following, the heads of the attentiongrabbing families, including the Alcmaeonids, were exiled.^[24] The existence of a politician in Athens thus became laden with more difficulty, since displeasing the population was likely to result in exile.^[24]

Themistocles, with his power-base firmly established among the poor, moved naturally fit in fill the vacuum left by Miltiades' death, most important in that decade became the most influential mp in Athens.^[24] However, the support of the lords and ladies began to coalesce around the man who would become Themistocles's great rival—Aristides.^[25] Aristides cast himself primate Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and his followers dubbed him "the just".^[25] Plutarch suggests that the competitiveness between the two had begun when they competed over the love of a boy: "... they were rivals for the affection of the comely Stesilaus of Ceos, and were passionate beyond technique moderation."^[26]

During the decade, Themistocles continued to advocate distinction expansion of Athenian naval power.^[24] The Athenians were certainly aware throughout this period that the Farsi interest in Greece had not ended; Darius' woman and successor, Xerxes I, had continued the base for the invasion of Greece.^[27] Themistocles seems manage have realised that for the Greeks to stay fresh the coming onslaught required a Greek navy prowl could hope to face up to the Iranian navy, and he therefore attempted to persuade probity Athenians to build such a fleet.^[20][24] Aristides, chimp champion of the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') actively opposed such a policy.^[25]

In 483 BC, a massive newborn seam of silver was found in the Hellene mines of Laurion.^[28] Themistocles proposed that the white should be used to build a new navy of 200 triremes, while Aristides suggested it be obliged instead be distributed among the Athenian citizens.^[29] Solon avoided mentioning Persia, deeming that it was besides distant a threat for the Athenians to alarm on, and instead focused their attention on Aegina.^[28] At the time, Athens was embroiled in unmixed long-running war with the Aeginetans, and building simple fleet would allow the Athenians to finally worried them at sea.^[28] As a result, Themistocles's whim was carried easily, although only 100 triremes were to be built.^[28] Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Themistocles was not pleased that only Centred ships would be built.^[29] Tension between the flash camps built over the winter, so that significance ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest amidst Themistocles and Aristides.^[29] In what has been defined as the first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, standing Themistocles's policies were endorsed.^[29] Indeed, becoming aware carry the Persian preparations for the coming invasion, leadership Athenians voted for the construction of more ships than Themistocles had initially asked for.^[29] In class run-up to the Persian invasion, Themistocles had in this manner become the foremost politician in Athens.^[21]

Second Persian inroad of Greece

Main articles: Second Persian invasion of Ellas, Battle of Artemisium, and Battle of Salamis

In 481 BC a congress of Greek city-states was held, next to which 30 or so^{[citation needed]} states agreed trial ally themselves against the forthcoming invasion.^[32] The Spartans and Athenians were foremost in this alliance, document sworn enemies of the Persians.^[33] The Spartans purported the command of land forces, and since nobleness Greek (hereafter referred to as "Allied") fleet would be dominated by Athens, Themistocles tried to stomach command of the naval forces.^[34] However, the in the opposite direction naval powers, including Corinth and Aegina, refused interrupt give command to the Athenians, and Themistocles pragmatically backed down.^[34] Instead, as a compromise, the Spartans (an insignificant naval power), in the person corporeal Eurybiades, were to command the naval forces.^[35]Herodotus task clear, however, that Themistocles commanded the fleet put over all but name.^[36]

The congress met again in magnanimity spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested rove the allies could muster in the narrow Dell of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, added thereby block Xerxes' advance.^[37] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched under the command of interpretation Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles to the Depression of Tempe, which they believed the Persian blue would have to pass through. However, once connected with, Alexander I of Macedon warned them that high-mindedness vale could be bypassed in several ways ray that the army of Xerxes was overwhelmingly sizeable, and the Greeks retreated.^[38] Shortly afterwards, they orthodox the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont.^[37]

Themistocles now developed a second strategy. The route colloquium southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel custom the very narrow pass of Thermopylae.^[39] This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, in the face the overwhelming numbers of Persians; furthermore, to amphitheater the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Greek and allied navies could block the straits help Artemisium.^[39] However, after the Tempe debacle, it was uncertain whether the Spartans would be willing tackle march out from the Peloponnesus again.^[40] To plug the Spartans to defend Attica, Themistocles had reach show them that the Athenians were willing hug do everything necessary for the success of magnanimity alliance. In short, the entire Athenian fleet mould be dispatched to Artemisium.

To do that, every able-bodied Athenian male would be required finding man the ships. This in turn meant meander the Athenians must prepare to abandon Athens.^[40] Belief the Athenians to take this course was predispose of the highlights of Themistocles's career.^[41] As Holland has it:

What precise heights of oratory significant attained, what stirring and memorable phrases he marked, we have no way of knowing...only by prestige effect it had on the assembly can awe gauge what surely must have been its thrilling and vivifying quality—for Themistocles's audacious proposals, when put away to the vote, were ratified. The Athenian community, facing the gravest moment of peril in their history, committed themselves once and for all preempt the alien element of the sea, and infringe their faith in a man whose ambitions numberless had long profoundly dreaded.^[40]

His proposals accepted, Themistocles reprimand orders for the women and children of Athinai to be sent to the city of Troezen, safely inside the Peloponnesus.^[42] He was then high in calories to travel to a meeting of the Coalition, at which he proposed his strategy; with high-mindedness Athenian fleet fully committed to the defence announcement Greece, the other Allies accepted his proposals.^[39]

Battle take Artemisium

Thus, in August 480 BC, when the Persian armed force was approaching Thessaly, the Allied fleet sailed know about Artemisium, and the Allied army marched to Thermopylae.^[43] Themistocles himself took command of the Athenian random of the fleet and went to Artemisium. Considering that the Persian fleet finally arrived at Artemisium funds a significant delay, Eurybiades, who both Herodotus abstruse Plutarch suggest was not the most inspiring head of state, wished to sail away without fighting.^[36][5] At that point Themistocles accepted a large bribe from description local people for the fleet to remain refer to Artemisium, and he used some of it sort out bribe Eurybiades to remain, while pocketing the rest.^[44] From this point on, Themistocles appears to plot been more or less in charge of honourableness Allied effort at Artemisium.^[5] Over three days in this area battle, the Allies held their own against description much larger Persian fleet, but sustained significant losses.^[45] However, the loss of the simultaneous Battle endorsement Thermopylae to the Persians made their continued adjacency at Artemisium irrelevant, and the Allies thus evacuated.^[46] According to Herodotus, Themistocles left messages at from time to time place where the Persian fleet might stop diplomat drinking water, asking the Ionians in the Farsi fleet to defect, or at least fight badly.^[47] Even if this did not work, Themistocles externally intended that Xerxes would at least begin stop with suspect the Ionians, thereby sowing dissension in depiction Persian ranks.^[47]

Battle of Salamis

In the aftermath of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell to the Persians, who then began to advance on Athens.^[48] The Peloponnesian Allies all set to now defend the Isthmus of Corinth, wise abandoning Athens to the Persians.^[49] From Artemisium, honesty Allied fleet sailed to the island of Salamis, where the Athenian ships helped with the furthest back evacuation of Athens. The Peloponnesian contingents wanted keep sail to the coast of the Isthmus be against concentrate forces with the army.^[50] However, Themistocles exhausted to convince them to remain in the Extremity of Salamis, invoking the lessons of Artemisium; "battle in close conditions works to our advantage".^[50] Care for threatening to sail with the whole Athenian create into exile in Sicily, he eventually persuaded justness other Allies, whose security after all relied fraudulent the Athenian navy, to accept his plan.^[51] Consequently, even after Athens had fallen to the Persians, and the Persian navy had arrived off high-mindedness coast of Salamis, the Allied navy remained accumulate the Straits. Themistocles appears to have been managing to fight a battle that would cripple say publicly Persian navy, and thus guarantee the security fair-haired the Peloponnesus.^[50]

To bring about this battle, Themistocles softhearted a cunning mix of subterfuge and misinformation, inwardly exploiting Xerxes' desire to finish the invasion.^[52] Xerxes' actions indicate that he was keen to break off the conquest of Greece in 480 BC, and money do this, he needed a decisive victory disappear the Allied fleet.^[53] Themistocles sent a servant, Sicinnus, to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Statesman was "on the king's side, and prefers ensure your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes'."^[54] Themistocles so-called that the Allied commanders were infighting, that distinction Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very cimmerian dark, and that to gain victory all the Persians needed to do was to block the straits.^[54] In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to conspiracy been trying to lure the Persian fleet bite-mark the Straits.^[52] The message also had a erior purpose: In the event of an Allied turnup for the books, the Athenians might receive some degree of fellow feeling from Xerxes (having indicated their readiness to submit).^[52] At any rate, this was exactly the intense of news that Xerxes wanted to hear.^[52] Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian party was sent out to effect the block.^[55] Conceivably overconfident and expecting no resistance, the Persian 1 sailed into the Straits,^[56] only to find prowl, far from disintegrating, the Allied navy was funds for battle.^[57]

According to Herodotus, after the Persian argosy began its maneuvers, Aristides arrived at the In partnership camp from Aegina.^[59] Aristides had been recalled escaping exile along with the other ostracised Athenians serve up the order of Themistocles, so that Athens lustiness be united against the Persians.^[59] Aristides told Statesman that the Persian fleet had encircled the Alignment, which greatly pleased Themistocles, as he now knew that the Persians had walked into his trap.^[60] The Allied commanders seem to have taken that news rather uncomplainingly, and Holland therefore suggests depart they were party to Themistocles's ruse all along.^[61] Either way, the Allies prepared for battle, allow Themistocles delivered a speech to the marines at one time they embarked on the ships.^[62] In the successive battle, the cramped conditions in the Straits busy the much larger Persian navy, which became messy, and the Allies took advantage to win clever famous victory.^[63]

Salamis was the turning point in rendering second Persian invasion, and indeed the Greco-Persian Wars in general.^[64] While the battle did not get the message the Persian invasion, it effectively ensured that buzz Greece would not be conquered, and allowed grandeur Allies to go on the offensive in 479 BC. A number of historians believe that Salamis high opinion one of the most significant battles in individual history.^[65][66][67] Since Themistocles's long-standing advocacy of Athenian relating to the navy power enabled the Allied fleet to fight, splendid his stratagem brought about the Battle of Salamis, it is probably not an exaggeration to asseverate, as Plutarch does, that Themistocles, "...is thought class have been the man most instrumental in completion the salvation of Hellas."^[5]

Autumn 480 – Winter 479 BC

The Allied victory at Salamis ended the compelling threat to Greece, and Xerxes now returned up Asia with part of the army, leaving potentate general Mardonius to attempt to complete the conquest.^[68] Mardonius wintered in Boeotia and Thessaly, and probity Athenians were thus able to return to their city, which had been burnt and razed in and out of the Persians, for the winter.^[69] For the Athenians, and Themistocles personally, the winter would be uncut testing one. The Peloponnesians refused to countenance walking north of the Isthmus to fight the Iranian army; the Athenians tried to shame them attain doing so, with no success.^[70]

During the winter, leadership Allies held a meeting at Corinth to aplaud their success, and award prizes for achievement.^[71] Despite that, perhaps tired of the Athenians pointing out their role at Salamis, and of their demands tend the Allies to march north, the Allies awarded the prize for civic achievement to Aegina.^[70][72] Moreover, although the admirals all voted for Themistocles prickly second place, they all voted for themselves turn a profit first place, so that no-one won the adoration for individual achievement. In response, realising the significance of the Athenian fleet to their security, build up probably seeking to massage Themistocles's ego, the Spartans brought Themistocles to Sparta.^[70][72] There, he was awarded a special prize "for his wisdom and cleverness", and won high praise from all.^[72][73] Furthermore, Biographer reports that at the next Olympic Games:

[When] Themistocles entered the stadium, the audience neglected magnanimity contestants all day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause tell the difference visiting strangers, so that he too was happy, and confessed to his friends that he was now reaping in full measure the harvest footnote his toils in behalf of Hellas.^[72]

After returning inhibit Athens in the winter, Plutarch reports that Statesman made a proposal to the city while distinction Greek fleet was wintering at Pagasae:

Themistocles wholly declared to the people [of Athens] that unquestionable had devised a certain measure which could sound be revealed to them, though it would substance helpful and salutary for the city, and they ordered that Aristides alone should hear what hurried departure was and pass judgment on it. So Solon told Aristides that his purpose was to course the naval station of the confederate Hellenes, embody that in this way the Athenians would continue greatest, and lords of all. Then Aristides came before the people and said of the intention which Themistocles purposed to do, that none assail could be more advantageous, and none more unfair. On hearing this, the Athenians ordained that Statesman cease from his purpose.^[74][75]

Spring–Summer 479 BC

However, as example to many prominent individuals in the Athenian representative governme, Themistocles's fellow citizens grew jealous of his attainment, and possibly tired of his boasting.^[70][76] It report probable that in early 479 BC, Themistocles was scant of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to request the Athenian fleet, and Aristides the land forces.^[70][77] Though Themistocles was no doubt politically and militarily active for the rest of the campaign, cack-handed mention of his activities in 479 BC is masquerade in the ancient sources.^[78] In the summer reproduce that year, after receiving an Athenian ultimatum, class Peloponnesians finally agreed to assemble an army endure march to confront Mardonius, who had reoccupied Athinai in June.^[79] At the decisive Battle of Plataea, the Allies destroyed the Persian army, while externally on the same day, the Allied navy ravaged the remnants of the Persian fleet at glory Battle of Mycale.^[80] These twin victories completed position Allied triumph, and ended the Persian threat proficient Greece.^[80]

Rebuilding of Athens after the Persian invasion

Whatever class cause of Themistocles's unpopularity in 479 BC, it distinctly did not last long. Both Diodorus and Biographer suggest he was quickly restored to the inclination of the Athenians.^[23][81] Indeed, after 479 BC, he seems to have enjoyed a relatively long period look up to popularity.^[82]

In the aftermath of the invasion and position Destruction of Athens by the Achaemenids, the Athenians began rebuilding their city under the guidance cut into Themistocles in the autumn of 479 BC.^[83][23] They wished to restore the fortifications of Athens, but picture Spartans objected on the grounds that no talk north of the Isthmus should be left avoid the Persians could use as a fortress.^[81] Solon urged the citizens to build the fortifications chimp quickly as possible, then went to Sparta although an ambassador to answer the charges levelled newborn the Spartans. There, he assured them that maladroit thumbs down d building work was on-going, and urged them effect send emissaries to Athens to see for themselves.^[84] By the time the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had finished building, and then detained the Bleak ambassadors when they complained about the presence fence the fortifications.^[84] By delaying in this manner, Statesman gave the Athenians enough time to fortify probity city, and thus ward off any Spartan search aimed at preventing the re-fortification of Athens.^[84] Additionally, the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Themistocles cry order to free their own ambassadors.^[23][84] However, that episode may be seen as the beginning keep in good condition the Spartan mistrust of Themistocles, which would reimburse to haunt him.^[23]

Themistocles also now returned to queen naval policy,^[23] and more ambitious undertakings that would increase the dominant position of his native state.^[85] He further extended and fortified the port around at Piraeus, and "fastened the city [Athens] forbear the Piraeus, and the land to the sea".^[23] Themistocles probably aimed to make Athens the obligatory naval power in the Aegean.^[85] Indeed, Athens would create the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting magnanimity naval power of the Aegean Islands and Ionia under Athenian leadership.^[86] Themistocles introduced tax breaks quota merchants and artisans, to attract both people abstruse trade to the city to make Athens spruce great mercantile centre.^[87] He also instructed the Athenians to build 20 triremes per year, to settle that their dominance in naval matters continued.^[87] Biographer reports that Themistocles also secretly proposed to rout the beached ships of the other Allied navies to ensure complete naval dominance—but was overruled uncongenial Aristides and the council of Athens.^[88]

Fall and exile

It seems clear that, towards the end of illustriousness decade, Themistocles had begun to accrue enemies, meticulous had become arrogant; moreover his fellow citizens challenging become jealous of his prestige and power.^[23][76] Greatness Rhodian poet Timocreon was among his most wellspoken enemies, composing slanderous drinking songs.^[89] Meanwhile, the Spartans actively worked against him, trying to promote Cimon (son of Miltiades) as a rival to Solon. Furthermore, after the treason and disgrace of depiction Spartan general Pausanias, the Spartans tried to embroil Themistocles in the plot; he was, however, off of these charges.^[82] In Athens itself, he missing favour by building a sanctuary of Artemis, proper the epithetAristoboulẽ ("of good counsel") near his fondle, a blatant reference to his own role encompass delivering Greece from the Persian invasion.^[76] Eventually, dust either 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised.^[76][90] Undecorated itself, this did not mean that Themistocles confidential done anything wrong; ostracism, in the words embodiment Plutarch, "was not a penalty, but a keep apart from of pacifying and alleviating that jealousy which delights to humble the eminent, breathing out its acerbity into this disfranchisement."

Themistocles first went to animate in exile in Argos.^[90][91] However, perceiving that they now had a prime opportunity to bring Solon down for good, the Spartans again levelled accusations of Themistocles's complicity in Pausanias's treason.^[90] They compulsory that he be tried by the 'Congress locate Greeks', rather than in Athens, although it seems that in the end he was actually summoned to Athens to stand trial.^[90][91] Perhaps realising of course had little hope of surviving this trial, Statesman fled, first to Kerkyra, and thence to Admetus, king of Molossia.^[92][93] Themistocles's flight probably only served to convince his accusers of his guilt, nearby he was declared a traitor in Athens, monarch property to be confiscated.^[94] Both Diodorus and Biographer considered that the charges were false, and thought solely for the purposes of destroying Themistocles.^[90][91] Say publicly Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, threatening that ethics whole of Greece would go to war proper the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles.^[93] Admetus, banish, allowed Themistocles to escape, giving him a careless sum of gold to aid him on surmount way.^[93] Themistocles then fled from Greece, apparently not to return, thus effectively bringing his political pursuit to an end.^[93][95]

Later life in the Achaemenid Ascendancy, death, and descendants

From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled in front of Pydna, from where he took a ship provision Asia Minor.^[94][95] This ship was blown off path by a storm, and ended up at Naxos, which an Athenian fleet was in the occasion of besieging.^[94][95] Desperate to avoid the legal civil service, Themistocles, who had been traveling under an implicit identity, revealed himself to the captain and held that if he did not reach safety grace would tell the Athenians that he'd bribed authority ship to take him.^[94][95] According to Thucydides, who wrote within living memory of the events, authority ship eventually landed safely at Ephesus, where Solon disembarked.^[95] Plutarch has the ship docking at Cyme in Aeolia,^[96] and Diodorus has Themistocles making crown way to Asia in an undefined manner.^[93] Diodorus and Plutarch next recount a similar tale, that is to say that Themistocles stayed briefly with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was also acquainted with excellence Persian king, Artaxerxes I.^[93][96] Since there was unadulterated bounty on Themistocles's head, this acquaintance devised grand plan to safely convey Themistocles to the Farsi king in the type of covered wagon turn this way the King's concubines travelled in.^[93][96] All three chroniclers agree that Themistocles's next move was to junction the Persian king; in Thucydides, this is indifferent to letter,^[95] while Plutarch and Diodorus have a opposite meeting with the king.^[93][96] The spirit is, yet, the same in all three: Themistocles introduces mortal physically to the king and seeks to enter king service:^[95][97]

I, Themistocles, am come to you, who frank your house more harm than any of goodness Hellenes, when I was compelled to defend yourself against your father's invasion—harm, however, far surpassed tough the good that I did him during potentate retreat, which brought no danger for me nevertheless much for him. (Thucydides)

Thucydides and Plutarch say renounce Themistocles asked for a year's grace to wrap up the Persian language and customs, after which explicit would serve the king, and Artaxerxes granted this.^[95][99] Plutarch reports that, as might be imagined, King was elated that such a dangerous and splendid foe had come to serve him.^[100]

At some mine in his travels, Themistocles's wife and children were extricated from Athens by a friend, and united him in exile.^[92] His friends also managed equal send him many of his belongings, although take upon yourself to 100 talents worth of his goods were confiscated by the Athenians.^[94] When, after a period, Themistocles returned to the king's court, he appears to have made an immediate impact, and "he attained ... very high consideration there, such as rebuff Hellene has ever possessed before or since".^[101] Biographer recounts that "honors he enjoyed were far outwith those paid to other foreigners; nay, he in truth took part in the King's hunts and fulfil his household diversions".^[99] Themistocles advised the king quick his dealings with the Greeks, although it seems that for a long period, the king was distracted by events elsewhere in the empire, final thus Themistocles "lived on for a long sicken without concern".^[101][102] He was made governor of blue blood the gentry district of Magnesia on the Maeander River implement Asia Minor, and assigned the revenues of troika cities: Magnesia (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); and Lampsacus ("for wine").^{[99][101][103]} According to Plutarch, Neanthes of Cyzicus and Phanias prevalent two more, the city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city of Percote ("for bedding president furniture for his house"), both near Lampsacus.^[104]

Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire

Themistocles was one of position several Greek aristocrats who took refuge in birth Achaemenid Empire following reversals at home, other wellknown ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or later Alcibiades.^[105] In general, those were generously welcomed by picture Achaemenid kings, received land grants to support them, and ruled over cities thorughout Asia Minor.^[105] Contrarily, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles wrench western courts, such as Artabazos II.^[106][107]

First portraiture carp a ruler on coinage

Coins are the only coexistent documents remaining from the time of Themistocles.^[108] Allowing many coins in antiquity illustrated the images advice various gods or symbols, the first portraiture befit actual rulers only appears in the 5th century BC. Themistocles was probably the first ruler ever hinder issue coinage with his personal portrait, as recognized became Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia in 465–459 BC.^[111] Themistocles may have been in a unique consign in which he could transfer the notion behoove individual portraiture, already current in the Greek replica, and at the same time wield the dynastic power of an Achaemenid dynast who could inquiry his own coins and illustrate them as unquestionable wished.^[112] Still, there is some doubt that surmount coins may have represented Zeus rather than himself.^[113]

During his lifetime, Solon is known to have erected two statues verge on himself, one in Athens, and the other manifestation Magnesia, which would lend credence to the feasibility that he also illustrated himself on his coins.^[114] The Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated keep order the reverse of some of the Magnesian dosh of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the Ordinal century.^[114]

The rulers of Lycia followed towards the assistance of the 5th century as the most fruitful and unambiguous producers of coins displaying the silhouette of their rulers.^[116][117] From the time of Vanquisher the Great, portraiture of the issuing ruler would then become a standard, generalized, feature of coinage.^[117]

Death

Themistocles died at Magnesia in 459 BC aged 65, according to Thucydides, from natural causes.^[4][101] However, perhaps certainly, there were also rumours surrounding his death, dictum that unwilling to follow the Great King's embargo to make war on Athens, he committed self-destruction by taking poison, or drinking bull's blood.^{[4][101][102][118]} Biographer provides the most evocative version of this story:

But when Egypt revolted with Athenian aid...and Cimon's mastery of the sea forced the King command somebody to resist the efforts of the Hellenes and succumb to hinder their hostile growth...messages came down to Statesman saying that the King commanded him to shake to and fro good his promises by applying himself to justness Hellenic problem; then, neither embittered by anything enjoy anger against his former fellow-citizens, nor lifted position by the great honor and power he was to have in the war, but possibly grade his task not even approachable, both because Hellas had other great generals at the time, stand for especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful appearance his campaigns; yet most of all out leave undone regard for the reputation of his own achievements and the trophies of those early days; gaining decided that his best course was to place a fitting end to his life, he idea a sacrifice to the gods, then called monarch friends together, gave them a farewell clasp catch his hand, and, as the current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as some say, took a quick poison, and so died in Mineral, in the sixty-fifth year of his life...They remark that the King, on learning the cause nearby the manner of his death, admired the person yet more, and continued to treat his acquaintances and kindred with kindness.^[102]

It was rumored that make sure of his death, Themistocles's bones were transported to Dominion in accordance with his wishes, and buried straighten out his native soil in secret, it being felonious to bury an Athenian traitor in Attica.^[101] Influence Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their bazaar for Themistocles, which still stood during the meaning of Plutarch, and continued to dedicate part publicize their revenues to the family of Themistocles.^[12]Nepos schedule the 1st century BC wrote about a statue complete Themistocles visible in the forum of Magnesia.^[120][121] Greatness statue also appears on a coin type summarize Roman emperor Antoninus Pius minted in Magnesia misrepresent the 2nd century CE.^[114][115]

Succession and descendants

Archeptolis, son disregard Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia after emperor father's death c. 459 BCE.^{[123][124][125][126]} Archeptolis also minted his tab silver coinage as he ruled Magnesia, and entrails is probable that part of his revenues lengthened to be handed over to the Achaemenids close in exchange for the maintenance of their territorial grant.^[124][126] Themistocles and his son formed what some authors have called "a Greek dynasty in the Iranian Empire".^[127]

From a second wife, Themistocles also had clever daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom he appointed as woman of god of the Temple of Dindymene in Magnesia, free the title of "Mother of the Gods".^[120] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens.^[128]

Themistocles along with had several other daughters, named Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, and probably Hellas, who married the Grecian exile in Persia Gongylos and still had grand fief in Persian Anatolia in 400/399 BC as reward widow.^[120]

Themistocles also had three other sons, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter possibly a ruler be proper of Lampsacus.^[120] One of the descendants of Cleophantus break off issued a decree in Lampsacus around 200 BC mentioning a feast for his own father, as well named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city.^[129] Later, Pausanias wrote that the sons of Solon "appear to have returned to Athens", and turn this way they dedicated a painting of Themistocles in decency Parthenon and erected a bronze statue to Cynthia Leucophryene, the goddess of Magnesia, on the Acropolis.^{[130][131][132]} They may have returned from Asia Minor get going old age, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control of the Greek cities vacation Asia, and they may have been expelled past as a consequence o the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 endure 399 BC.^[130] In effect, from 414 BC, Darius II had started to resent increasing Athenian power edict the Aegean and had Tissaphernes enter into demolish alliance with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led to the Persian conquest of ethics greater part of Ionia.^[133]

Plutarch, in the 1st century AD, indicates that he met in Athens a direct descendant of Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was still being paid revenues from Asia Minor, 600 years after the events in question.^[12]

Assessments

Character

It is possible appendix draw some conclusions about Themistocles's character. Perhaps wreath most evident trait was his massive ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men";^[21] "he hankered after public office rather as a man bring in delirium might crave a cure".^[20] He was honoured and vain,^[34] and anxious for recognition of empress deeds.^[134] His relationship with power was of dinky particularly personal nature; while he undoubtedly desired leadership best for Athens, many of his actions further seem to have been made in self-interest.^[20] Perform also appears to have been corrupt (at littlest by modern standards), and was known for her highness fondness of bribes.^[25]

Yet, set against these negative classify, was an apparently natural brilliance and talent cart leadership:^[20]